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\section*{Handout 6 (Zero-Knowledge Proofs)}

Zero-knowledge proofs (short ZKP) solve a paradoxical puzzle:

How to convince somebody else that one knows a secret, without

revealing what the secret actually is? This sounds like a

problem the Mad Hatter from Alice in Wonderland would occupy

himself with, but actually there some serious and not so

serious applications of it. For example, if you solve

crosswords with your friend, say Bob, you might want to

convince him that you found a solution for one question, but

of course you do not want to reveal the solution, as this

might give Bob an advantage somewhere else in the crossword.

So how to convince Bob that you know the answer (or a secret)?

One way would be to come up with the following protocol:

Suppose the answer is \textit{folio}. Then look up the

definition of \textit{folio} in a dictionary. Say you find:

\begin{quote}

``an \textit{individual} leaf of paper or parchment, either

loose as one of a series or forming part of a bound volume,

which is numbered on the recto or front side only.''

\end{quote}

\noindent

Take the first non-article word in this definition,

in this case \textit{individual}, and look up the definition

of this word, say

\begin{quote}

``a single \textit{human} being as distinct from a group''

\end{quote}

\noindent 

In this definition take the second non-article word, that

is \textit{human}, and again look up the definition of this 

word. This will yield

\begin{quote}

``relating to \textit{or} characteristic of humankind''

\end{quote}

\noindent 

You could go on to look up the definition of the third

non-article in this definition and so on. But let us assume

you agreed with Bob to stop after three iterations with the

third non-article word in the last definition, that is

\textit{folio}, you send to him \textit{or}. 

How can Bob verify that you know the solution? Well, once he

solved it himself, he can use the dictionary and follow the

same ``trail'' as you did. If the final word agrees with what

him. This protocol works like a one-way hash function because

\textit{or} does not give any hint as to what was the first

word was. I leave you to think why this protocol avoids

article words. 

After Bob found his solution and verified that according to

the protocol it ``maps'' also to \textit{or}, can he be

entirely sure no cheating is going on? Not with 100\%

certainty. It could have been entirely possible that he was

given \textit{or} as the word, but it derived from an entirely

different word. This might seem very unlikely, but at

least theoretical is a possibility. Protocols based on

zero-knowledge proofs will produce a similar result---they

give an answer that might be erroneous in a very small number

of cases. The point is to iterate them long enough so that

the theoretical possibility of cheating is negligibly small. 

By the way, the authors of the paper ``Dismantling Megamos

Crypto: Wirelessly Lockpicking a Vehicle Immobilizer'' who

were barred from publishing their results used also a hash to

prove they did the work and (presumably) managed to get into

cars without a key; see Figure~\ref{paper}. This is very

similar to the method about crosswords: They like to prove

that they did the work, but not giving out the ``solution''.

But this also shows what the problem with such a method is:

yes, we can hide the secret temporarily, but if somebody else

wants to verify it, then the secret has to be made public. Bob

needs to know that \textit{folio} is the solution before he

can verify the claim that somebody else had the solution

first. Similarly with the paper: we need to wait until the

authors are finally allowed to publish their findings in order

to verify the hash. This might happen at some point, but

equally it might never happen (what for example happens if the

authors lose their copy of the paper because of a disk

failure?). Zero-knowledge proofs, in contrast, can be

and never will be.

\begin{figure}

\begin{center}

\addtolength{\fboxsep}{4mm}

\fbox{\includegraphics[scale=0.4]{../pics/Dismantling_Megamos_Crypto.png}}

\end{center}

\caption{The authors of this paper used a hash in order to prove

later that they have managed to break into cars.\label{paper}}

\end{figure}

\subsubsection*{ZKP: An Illustrative Example}

The idea behind zero-knowledge proofs is not very obvious and

will surely take some time for you to digest. Therefore let us

start with a simple illustrative example. The example will not

be perfect, but hopefully explain the gist of the idea. The

example is called Alibaba's cave, which graphically looks as 

follows:

\begin{center}

\begin{tabular}{c@{\hspace{8mm}}c@{\hspace{8mm}}c}

\includegraphics[scale=0.1]{../pics/alibaba1.png} &

\includegraphics[scale=0.1]{../pics/alibaba2.png} &

\includegraphics[scale=0.1]{../pics/alibaba3.png} \\

Step 1 & Step 2 & Step 3

\end{tabular}

\end{center}

secret, but wants to convince Bob that she knows it.

One way of course would be to let Bob follow her, but then he

would also find out the secret. This does not work. So let us

first fix the rules: At the beginning Alice and Bob are

outside the cave. Alice goes in alone and takes either tunnel

labelled $A$ in the picture, or the other one labelled $B$.

She waits at the magic wand for the instructions from Bob, who

also goes into the gave and observes what happens at the fork.

He has no knowledge which tunnel Alice took and calls out

Let us have a look at the case where Alice cheats, that is not

knows the secret. She would still go into the cave and use,

for example the $B$-segment of the tunnel. If now Bob says she

should emerge from $B$, she was lucky. But if he says she

\subsubsection*{Using an Graph-Isomorphism Problem for ZKPs}

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